Essence Of Decision: Explaining The Cuban Missile Crisis

Pith Of Decision: Explaining The Cuban Missile Crisis Pith of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis, by Graham Allison and Philip Zelikow looks at the earth shattering Cuban Missile Crisis, which was one of the best demonstrations of strategy during the Cold War. Allison and Zelikow investigate through three distinctive theoretical focal points obliging the peruser to look further into regular techniques for international strategy examination. Allison and Zelikow assess the occasions of the thirteen days in October 1962 to exhibit the models of strategy examination from alternate points of view. The creators give abundant recorded surveys, proof and archives of the occasions, and offers careful investigations of the urgent time of the atomic age by likewise introducing new techniques to consider with international strategy activities. The three theoretical models, which can be utilized to examine strategy activities; the Rational Actor, Organizational Behavior, and Governmental Politics Models are portrayed and applied to the Cu ban Missile Crisis case. Each model shows various highlights and territories of the major choices made by both the United States and the Soviet Union during the emergency. Allison and Zelikow explain that despite the fact that there is no entire comprehension of the circumstance as it occurred at that point, and it will never be likely, anyway utilizing these three hypothetical focal points it will help increase a closer understanding and a greater amount of a consciousness of the entirety of the components and the decisions that were made at that point. In this paper I will endeavor to draw some comprehension of the choices the United States made towards the Cuban Missile Crisis by utilizing Allisons three theoretical focal points from the Essence of Decision, which is an investigation of the emergency itself and the dynamic in the goals strategy. Graham Allison and Philip Zelikow present Model I as the most usually utilized strategy for assessing international strategy activities, this technique is named the Rational Actor Model, otherwise called RAM. Smash is a method of understanding approach activities taken by states, by thinking about the nation as a judicious unitary entertainer. The balanced system is additionally the most much of the time utilized strategy in deciding choices between strategy decisions in the reception and assessment phases of the approach cycle. While examining an activity attempted by a state towards another express, the RAM presumes the activities occurred are proposed, esteem augmenting and vital. The creators quote for every clarification a demonstration comprises of indicating what objective the administration was tightening when it acted and how the activity was a sensible decision, given the countries objective (Allison Zelikow, 1999, p. 15). This permits us to see how individuals approach dec iding, as it is done verifiably, without the individual accidentally acknowledging they are doing it. The principle inquiries in the Essence of Decision book that were replied with respect to the emergency are; Why did the Soviet Union spot hostile rockets in Cuba? For what reason did the US react to this activity with a bar around Cuba? What's more, for what reason did the Soviet Union pull back rockets accordingly? Taking a gander at the circumstance in understanding the US dynamic response to the activities, the RAM examination considers subsequent to assessing a number choices, and considering Kennedys objectives, by evaluating the nature of the quest for choices and their individual results, and check whether the last decision vowed to accomplish his unique objectives to the degree that the dynamic procedure approaches this perfect model, we can say that it was levelheaded (Allison 1999, p.33), and a bar would have the most obvious opportunity with regards to sending the ideal message to Moscow without inciting a military reaction. Allison and Zelikows Rational Actor Model, analyzes the subject of whether we can see unmistakably the move made by a nation in the universal strategy field as a reasonable decision? For example, the idea of limited soundness shows up unmistakably in international strategy dynamic, in any event, when there is a focal chief of a state, for instance a pioneer or president who has incomparable decision over all approaches, their normal dynamic will be thwarted by the way that they have no clue about what the adversary is thinking. This can be alluded back to the Cuban Missile Crisis; where President Kennedy and his guides, the ExComs bombed endeavors at attempting to comprehend why Khrushchev settled on specific choices and activities. Since the worldwide strategy field regularly manages serious oppositional rivals who keep their actual expectations covered up as a methods for achieving what they need (Lindbolm, 1959, p.113-127). President Kennedy turns into the driver of the discussion by ensuring his group circumspectly makes each stride of the emergency to test further ramifications of every choice and to inspire them to think bigger (Allison Zelikow, 1999, p. 357) as the mass of redirecting atomic war falls upon him. Accordingly encourages us comprehend why the US settled on an objective choice with the barricade as it had a few points of interest, one being it didn't comprise direct assault, furthermore it put the weight of the following proceed onward Khrushchev, and furthermore kept different alternatives open. This is the point at which the USSR chose to pull back, that is on the grounds that it remembered US vital predominance. The book contends that in reality the USSR threw in the towel in face of US alerts that further activities would follow if the rockets were to get operational. The subsequent Model, Allison and Zelikow presents are the Organizational Model of international strategy. In this model, it is comprehended that nations and governments are not unitary entertainers but rather are expressed as huge conglomerate(s) of approximately partnered associations, each with its very own generous existence (Allison Zelikow, 1999, p. 143). The creators express that Governments see issues through authoritative sensors㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦they characterize choices and gauge outcomes as their segment associations. What's more, process data So, the administration developments are less sensible decisions settled on by one focal leader, yet are the creations of numerous associations all working as indicated by standard examples of conduct. The impacts to consider with this hierarchical model outline that the significance of taking a gander at administrative activities thusly gives us an away from of why the United States settled on the choices in this emergency. For instanc e, almost all administration activities in international strategy are completed by associations, regardless of whether it is the Forces or the CIA, for this situation, the legislature doing the approaches are partitioned with the military and knowledge organizations. Moreover, hierarchical activities are likewise constrained and known by standard working methods, with what has been done previously. The model which the creators present furnishes us with an inquisitive chance to take a gander at the job of bodies that play in international strategy making in various ways. In Model II, Allison and Zelikow present a perspective on choices that are totally all around requested by the administration, in spite of the fact that it may not be the legislature that settles on the choice. In understanding the United States dynamic procedure with Model II, the consultations of the EX-Com that created potential options were on the other hand replied by the associations, What explicitly, should be possible? (Allison Zelikow, 1999, p. 225). President Kennedys activities were constrained by what the military associations could do, since their activities and choices made were supported up with understanding and past decisions in international strategy. Quintessence of Decision shows that authoritative limits are essential in global strategy making. Model II likewise permits us to comprehend instances of how hierarchical practices shake the usage of specific approaches. For instance, the circumstance by the Soviet soldiers absence of disguise of the rockets in Cuba, and President Kennedy hurrying to control with the practice runs over Soviet air space. On the off chance that this happened after the emergency had started, there may have begun an atomic war because of wrong translation other than an experimental drill. This model proposes that there is in every case more to the circumstance of a reasonable choice. The creators permit us to glance through different focal points to give us a greater amount of a comprehension of how the US settled on specific choices all through the emergency. The third model that Allison and Zelikow show in the Essence of Decision is the Governmental Politics model otherwise called the Bureaucratic model. Model III comprises of strategy activities as a procedure where state on-screen characters bring their own musings, assessments and thoughts together to accomplish separate objectives and settle on a game-plan all things considered, which may struggle with one another. In Essence of Decision the creators clarify why it is important to recognize the games and players, to show the alliances, deals and bargains, and to pass on some vibe for the disarray (Allison Zelikow, 1999, p. 257). For this situation, different people, speaking to different hierarchical interests take part in a procedure to accomplish an arranged cooperative choice, which will speak to the strategy of a state. During the Crisis all US choices were made by ExCom, President Kennedys internal hover of counselors that were created together explicitly for the rocket emergenc y. Allison and Zelikow talked about the Ex-Com individuals and their thoughts, the centrality of the Cuban issue to Kennedy, and by and large attempt to delineate a general political air behind the U.S. choices. Allison proposed in the book that in view of the disappointment of Bay of Pigs attack, the Republicans in the United States congress made Cuban strategy into a significant issue for the up and coming congressional races later in 1962. Thusly President Kennedy chose a solid reaction as opposed to a discretionary one. In spite of the fact that most of ExCom at first preferred air strikes, those nearest to the president, (his sibling Attorney General, Robert Kennedy and Special Coun

Company Profile- Ted Baker Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Organization Profile-Ted Baker - Essay Example Yet, through them it has proceeded with the excursion of its thriving and progression. The organization has opened numerous outlets around the world; additionally it has hopped into the web based shopping market. The Ted Baker Company utilized top notch materials and methods in their creation. It is one of the main reasons of its success (Ellen, 2007, p. 281). In this investigation we will talk about profoundly the organization profile of the Ted Baker Company. The historical backdrop of the organization, its items subtleties, promoting and commercial procedures, ongoing turn of events, contenders and clients will be the primary subjects of conversation. Along these lines we will have the option to comprehend the development and the effect of the market esteems on the improvement of the organization. Note that the Ted Baker Company has just finished two decades since its appearance in the market. The originator of the Ted Baker Company is the enthusiastic and the fit agent Ray Kelvin. Kelvin had a place with the long queue of style retailers. In his youth he worked in the article of clothing shop of his uncle and after that he built up the possibility of a long chain style store in his pinnacle years. The perspective which extraordinarily contributed towards the accomplishment of his thought and the acknowledgment of the organization among the clients is the fine taste of Ray Kelvin. He had the capacity to catch the necessities and tastes of the purchasers. He was likewise granted a CBE for his exceptional administrations to the business of design and attire. He utilized his more prominent feeling of advertising methods to catch the consideration of the clients. The excursion of the Ted Baker Company began in the year 1988 when the organization opened its first store at the Glasgow. The advancement was then trailed by the opening of three additional stores. The spots were Nottingham Exchange Arcade, Manchester and King Street. The limited time technique was that they offered cleaning administrations with each shirt they sold. Around then the central item was men’s dress shirt (Ellen, 2007,

Little-Known Ways We Work for You

Little-Known Ways We Work for You (0) You probably know the EasyBib writing tools service for its top-notch citation generator and as a tool to check for grammar errors and plagiarism. You probably didn’t realize, however, that the team at EasyBib works every day to personalize the citing and writing process as much as possible, so that our tools suit your specific academic needs. Here are some of the ways we can help you with your next paper that you may not have known about before: We not only generate citations for you, we teach you about them There is a treasure trove of information about citations at . In our citation guides, we have tips for how to do things like organize an MLA works cited, format an APA reference list, create footnotes, create a Chicago style citation, list multiple authors in a citation, and so much more. Explore our guides before handing in your next paper. Our paper checker is now AI-enhanced Language is always evolving, and so should we. That’s why we recently decided to add artificial intelligence (AI) to our EasyBib Plus grammar checker! Powered by the technology developed by WriteLab, we now use AI to give you better writing feedback. Also, the AI-enabled EasyBib paper checker is continuously learning and trying to improve in order to give you the best suggestions and service possible. You can create a custom citation for your paper EasyBib writing tools support over 50 different source type options for you to cite in your paper. While this is a lot to choose from, there may be times where you are looking to cite something that we don’t currently have listed on our site. If that is the case, then you can choose “write/paste” citation from the source type dropdown. This feature allows you to include a citation of your choosing in your works cited page, and gives you complete control over the formatting. You can ask an expert when you get stuck Is there a tough citation question that you can’t find the answer to in our guides or your style manual? We have a resource for that! Check out our “Ask a Citation Expert” feature, which lets you ask questions to a pro in the world of citations. If the expert chooses your question or feels that it could help other students learn more about citations, it will be posted to our Frequently Asked Questions board with a reply. New citation styles can be added Citation styles change all the time, and new ones are published regularly. If you know of a style that we do not support, feel free to contact our support team (mentioned above) and suggest that we add it. In order to make the process as fast as possible, please include a link to documentation with the style rules/formatting. We are also always happy to hear suggestions on how to improve our existing styles. We have a top-notch support team Have a tech issue while creating citations? Have trouble finding your way around the site? Have a feature idea you’d like to suggest? Our support team is ready to handle any of these questions and more. Simply go to support.easybib.com to get started with a new question or request. We also list the most frequently asked questions our support team handles, so that you can find the answer to your problem as quickly as possible. We are open to suggestions Above all, we love hearing from our users and truly value the input that they provide. If you have a suggestion or comment, do not hesitate to reach out to us via our support team mentioned above. Happy citing and writing! Looking for more? Check out our grammar guides and build your knowledge of verbs, nouns, prepositions, and other parts of speech.

Conversation Activity Best Friends and Worst Friends

The following exercise focuses on what students like best and least about friends. The exercise allows students to practice a number of areas: expressing opinions, comparatives and superlatives, descriptive adjectives and reported speech. The overall concept of the lesson can easily be transferred to other subject areas such as holiday choices, choosing a school, perspective careers, etc. Activity Practice expressing opinions and reported speech. Choosing which qualities would make a best friend and which qualities would make an undesirable friend. Best Friend — Friend from Hell: Outline Help students activate vocabulary by asking them for descriptive adjectives describing good friends and bad friends. Distribute worksheet to students and ask them to put the descriptive adjectives/phrases into the two categories (Best Friend — Undesirable Friend). Put students into pairs and ask them to give explanations for why they have chosen to put the various descriptions into one or the other of the categories. Ask students to pay careful attention to what their partner says and take notes, as they will be expected to report back to a new partner. Put students into new pairs and ask them to tell their new partner what their first partner has said. As a class, ask students about any surprises or differences of opinion they encountered during the discussions. Extend the lesson by a follow-up discussion on what makes a good friend. Exercise Instruction Put the following adjectives/phrases into one of the two categories: best friend or undesirable friend.  Take notes on the preferences of your partner. confident in his/her abilitieshandsome or beautifultrustworthyoutgoingtimidpunctual intelligentfun-lovingrich or well offartistic abilitiesinquisitive mindpossess athletic abilitieswell-traveledcreativefree spiritspeaks English wellinterested in the same thingsinterested in different thingsfrom the same social backgroundfrom a different social backgroundloves to tell storiesrather reservedambitiousplans for the futurehappy with what he/she has

The Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne - 973 Words

Nathaniel Hawthorne’s, The Scarlet Letter, takes place in June of 1642 of the Puritan town of Boston, Massachusetts. Hester Prynne, the protagonist, is married to Roger Chillingworth. They decided to leave Europe to have a new life in Boston; unexpectedly her husband failed to join her. After two years waiting for her husband’s return, she engages a personal relationship with Arthur Dimmesdale which causes an improper affair, and she gives birth to a baby girl named Pearl. When living in a Puritan society they forced Hester to wear the letter â€Å"A† as punishment; which stands for â€Å"adulterer†. Also for another act of punishment, the community made Hester stand on a scaffold platform for three hours for public shaming. To her surprise she recognizes a person in the crowd; her husband. Throughout The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne demonstrates the theme of guilt through the characters of Hester Prynne and Arthur Dimmesdale, but also the relationships betw een Hester Prynne and Roger Chillingworth. In a Puritan society, the people will humiliate and punish you for any sin you have commented. Puritans show no remorse if found guilty of a sin. They live by strict standards of morality concerning any and every ungodly act a person may have committed. Any sort of sexual affairs was against their morals. For any woman who cheated on her husband would be punished by the community. The punishment would be harsh and cruel. Hawthorne uses another charters voice to support my claim. At theShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1242 Words   |  5 PagesLYS PAUL Modern Literature Ms. Gordon The Scarlet Letter The scarlet letter is book written by Nathaniel Hawthorne who is known as one the most studied writers because of his use of allegory and symbolism. He was born on July 4, 1804 in the family of Nathaniel, his father, and Elizabeth Clark Hathorne his mother. Nathaniel added â€Å"W† to his name to distance himself from the side of the family. His father Nathaniel, was a sea captain, and died in 1808 with a yellow fever while at sea. That was aRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne960 Words   |  4 Pages3H 13 August 2014 The novel, The Scarlet Letter, was written by the author Nathaniel Hawthorne and was published in 1850 (1). It is a story about the Puritan settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, set around 1650 (2). The story is written in the third person with the narrator being the author. The common thread that runs through this novel is Hawthorne’s apparent understanding of the beliefs and culture of the Puritans in America at that time. But Hawthorne is writing about events in a societyRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne919 Words   |  4 Pagessymbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†. Symbolism is when an object is used in place of a different object. Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of the most symbolic writers in all of American history. In â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the letter â€Å"A† is used to symbolize a variety of different concepts. The three major symbolistic ideas that the letter â€Å"A† represents in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter† are; shame, guilt, and ability. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the firstRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1397 Words   |  6 PagesFebruary 2016 The Scarlet Letter was written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in 1850 which is based on the time frame of the Puritans, a religious group who arrived in Massachusetts in the 1630’s. The Puritans were in a religious period that was known for the strict social norms in which lead to the intolerance of different lifestyles. Nathaniel Hawthorne uses the puritan’s strict lifestyles to relate to the universal issues among us. The time frame of the puritans resulted in Hawthorne eventually thinkingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne999 Words   |  4 Pages Nathaniel Hawthorne is the author of the prodigious book entitled The Scarlet Letter. In The Scarlet Letter, Hester Prynne commits adultery with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. Her husband, Roger Chillingworth, soon finds out about the incident after it becomes clear that she is pregnant. The whole town finds out and Hester is tried and punished. Meanwhile, Roger Chillingworth goes out then on a mission to get revenge by becoming a doctor and misprescribing Dimmesdale. He does this to torture DimmesdaleRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne1037 Words   |  5 Pagesthat human nature knows right from wrong, but is naturally evil and that no man is entirely â€Å"good†. Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of the classic novel The Scarlet Letter, believes that every man is innately good and Hawthorne shows that everyone has a natural good side by Hester’s complex character, Chillingworth’s actions and Dimmesdale’s selfless personality. At the beginning of the Scarlet Letter Hester Prynne is labeled as the â€Å"bad guy†. The townspeople demand the other adulterer’s name, butRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1517 Words   |  7 PagesNathaniel Hawthorne composes Pearl as a powerful character even though she is not the main one. Her actions not only represent what she is as a person, but what other characters are and what their actions are. Hawthorne makes Pearl the character that helps readers understand what the other characters are. She fits perfectly into every scene she is mentioned in because of the way her identity and personality is. Pearl grows throughout the book, which in the end, help the readers better understandRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne1488 Words   |  6 Pages In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel The Scarlet Letter, the main character, Hester Prynne, is a true contemporary of the modern era, being cast into 17th century Puritan Boston, Massachusetts. The Scarlet Letter is a revolutionary novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne examining the ugliness, complexity, and strength of the human spirit and character that shares new ideas about independence and the struggles women faced in 17th century America. Throughout the novel, Hester’s refusal to remove the scarlet letterRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1319 Words   |  6 PagesPrynne and Arthur Dimmesdale are subject to this very notion in Nathaniel Hawthorne s The Scarlet Letter. Hester simply accepted that what she had done was wrong, whereas Dimmesdale, being a man of high regard, did not want to accept the reality of what he did. Similar to Hester and Dimmesdale, Roger Chillingworth allows his emotions to influence his life; however, his influence came as the result of hi s anger. Throughout the book, Hawthorne documents how Dimmesdale and Hester s different ways of dealingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1714 Words   |  7 PagesSome two hundred years following the course of events in the infamous and rigid Puritan Massachusetts Colony in the 1600s, Nathaniel Hawthorne, descendant of a Puritan magistrate, in the 19th century, published The Scarlet Letter. Wherein such work, Hawthorne offered a social critique against 17th Massachusetts through the use of complex and dynamic characters and literary Romanticism to shed light on said society’s inherent contradiction to natural order and natural law. In his conclusive statements

Functional Styles Free Essays

Scientific prose styleOratorical sub-stylePublicistic styles Pragmatic aimto prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena. is to exert influence on public opinion, to convince the listener that the interpretation given by the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well. o exert influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay or article not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well Situation of application The genre of scientific works is mostly characteristic of the written form of language (scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also be found in its oral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences, etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Functional Styles or any similar topic only for you Order Now The oratorical sub- style is used in public speeches on political and social problems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions as public weddings, funerals and jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law. The publicistic style is used in public speeches and printed public works which are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to important social or political events, public problems of cultural or moral character. Phonological featuresA group of some learned words drawn from the Romance languages and, though fully adapted to the English phonetic system, some of them continue to sound singularly foreign. Their very sound seems to create complex associations: deleterious, emollient, incommodious, meditation, illusionary. Use of exclamations to attract listener’s attention. Use of a strong rhythm and a clear rising + falling intonation sequence, convey a sense of rhetorical power, structural control, and semantic completeness. They are widely used in formal writing. And they are especially common in political speeches, where the third item provides a climax of expression which can act as a cue for applause. Use of exclamations to attract listener’s attention. Semantic featuresSemantic accuracy. Words are used in their primary logical meaning. Hardly a single word will be found here which is used in more than one meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning. Even the possibility of ambiguity is avoided. The stylistic devices employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. An antithesis is framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while a climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds. The stylistic devices employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. An antithesis is framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while a climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds. Grammatical featuresnominal character ( the predominance of nouns over verbs) in the use of parts of speech, the use of prepositional â€Å"of-phrases† to substitute the genitive case, transposition of the classes of nouns, wide use of the Passive Voice, Indefinite Tenses, specialization of pronouns in demonstrative and intensification functions, numerous conjunctions revealing the logical order of the text as well as double conjunctions ( not merely†¦ but also, whether †¦ or both†¦ and, as†¦ s), adverbs of logical connection ;Use of the 1st person pronoun we; 2nd person pronoun you: We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness†¦(Th. Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence). The use of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and others. Use of Figures of Repe tition and intensification. Use of the 1st person pronoun we; 2nd person pronoun you. The use of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and others. Use of Figures of Repetition and intensification. Stylistic usage of morphological forms. Vocabulary usedhighly specialized scientific terminology, terminological groups, revealing the conceptual systems of the scientific style, the peculiarities of the use of terms in scientific speech, the use of nouns and verbs in abstract meanings, special reference words, scientific phraseology – cliches, stereotyped and hackneyed word combinations and idioms, priority of neutral vocabulary, limitations in the use of emotional- evaluative and expressive vocabulary and phraseology, absence of on-literary vocabulary and phraseology ( slang words, vulgarisms, obscene words) , peculiarities in word- building (standard suffixes and prefixes, mainly of Greek and Latin origin – tele-, morpho, philo- -ism, etc. , peculiarities in the scarce use of imagery (usually trite and hackneyed, the priority of the functions of intensification and decoration, non-systematic, narrow contextual charact er, absence of rich associations, schematic and generalized character)The oratory is usually characterized by emotional colouring and connotations. The vocabulary of speeches is usually elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of high-flown style. Use of of neutral and bookish vocabulary, wide use of language means to actualize chronotop (proper and geographical names, abundance of statistics, toponymic and proper names, facts and data), means of evaluation, neologisms, social political terminology, a great number of loan-words and international words, use words and word-combinations of other styles ( especially, conversational), against the general background of the bookish style vocabulary, including terminology as well as means of imagery to increase expressiveness / trite metaphors, metonymies, personification, metaphorical paraphrases, metaphorical use of terminology/, newspaper terms: newspaper vocabulary and cliches (journalese and bookish), decomposition of phraseological units. Word-building: loan suffixes and prefixes as well as combination of words; Morphological featuresSingular forms indicate mainly impossibility of referring number notion to the phenomena which are expressed by word-forms, so here weakening of number meaning takes place, because the form belongs to the abstract nounsThe use of the singular number of nouns in their collective meaning, plural number for the definition of generalization, wide use of the superlative degree of adjectives in order to reveal expressiveness as well as the use of adjectives-colouratives, substantiation and evaluation of the use of numerals, adjectives and participles. The use of the singular number of nouns in their collective meaning, plural number for the definition of generalization, wide use of the superlative degree of adjectives in order to reveal expressiveness as well as the use of adjectives-colouratives, substantiation and evaluation of the use of numerals, adjectives and participles. Syntactical featuresAverage sentence length (7-52 words) narmal academic writing. Priority of full, logically correct, regular syntactical models, the syntax of simple sentence in the scientific speech – extensive use of extended two-member sentence, priority in the use of compound sentences, extensive use of secondary predicative constructions ( Complex Object, Participial and Gerundial Constructions), wide use of conjunctions and denominative prepositions, concise expression of syntactical connection in word combinations, sentences, groups of sentences, absolute priority of declarative sentences in the use of communicative types of sentences; Use of complex syntax, complex, composite and simple extended sentences, sentences in many cases make up the whole paragraphs, a wide use of attributive groups, and infinitives, participles, gerunds and constructions with them, use of syntactical complexes (Complex Object, Complex Subject), Nominal Absolute Participial Constructions, specific word order. Average sentence length (9-11words) and average degree of complexity in the sentence structure. Wide use of declarative sentences. The use of questions, exclamatory sentences for the sake of expressiveness. Publicistic style is characterized by coherent and logical syntactical structure, with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing. Use of complex syntax, complex, composite and simple extended sentences, sentences in many cases make up the whole paragraphs, a wide use of attributive groups, and infinitives, participles, gerunds and constructions with them, use of syntactical complexes (Complex Object, Complex Subject), Nominal Absolute Participial Constructions, specific word order. Means of expressive syntax: inversions, parallelism, antithesis, parcellation, gradation, isolation, different types of the author’s words presentation and conversational constructions, different patterns in the use of homogeneous parts of the sentence – double, three-element and multi-element; Types of texts (see Morokhovskiy)According to the type of discourses it can be scientific, but popular scientific style which combines the features of scientific and belles-lettres styles can also existTransactionalThe expository text type, Mass Media text type Genres of texts (see Morokhovskiy)The genre of scientific works is mostly characteristic of the written form of language (scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also be found in its oral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences, etc. ); in the latter case this style has some features of colloquial speech. Transactional genreExpository genre Conclusion Different scolars subdivide functional styles in different way for example the classification of I. R. Galperin, M. D. Kuznets, I. V. Arnold , A. N. Morokhovsky in some aspects are the same but in other the differs, and the same we have with the division of the genres and text types. How to cite Functional Styles, Papers

Auditing and Accounting Issues Responsebility of Accountant

Question: Describe about the Auditing and Accounting Issues for Responsebility of Accountant. Answer: Part A: Audit Planning Preliminary judgment of materiality Materiality refers to the incorrect or missing information in the financial statements of a company which imposes significant impact on the decision making of the users. It is the key concept in accounting as because it helps auditors and accountants to decide which figures requires separate reporting (Berk and DeMarzo, 2007). The trial balance of Bobs Bikes shows the opening and closing balance of all the transactions from the year 2014 to 2016. The difference in the opening and closing balance of the accounts shows that there is incorrect information in the trial balance. The incorrect information means that the value of the company has increased or decreased during a period of time. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the accountant and auditor to analyze the financial statements and determining missing or incorrect information (Elliott and Elliott, 2008). The differences in the accounts in the trial balance are as follows: Trial balance Particulars Jul 1 2015 April 30, 2016 July 1, 2014 June 30, 2015 Differences Debit Credit Debit Credit Accounts receivable 124,320 112,000 -12320 Sales 201,515 187,450 -14065 Inventory 189,000 175,000 -14000 Depreciation 28,916 15,590 -13326 Wages 46,816 53,000 6184 The account receivable, sales, inventory, depreciation and wages account shows differences in their opening balance and closing balance indicting materiality in the accounts (Hillier, 2010). The values of account receivable, sales, inventory and depreciation has been overstated and the value of wages has been understated. Analytical review The trial balance is the account report that is shown at the end of financial year and listing end balance of each account. Trial balance ensures that all the debit amounts equal to the credit amounts that mean that there are no unbalanced entries in the journal. The trail balance of Bobs bikes shows all the debit and credit accounts that matches at the end of the report (Holton, 2012). The auditors uses the trial balance while conducting an audit and transferring the accounts into the accounting software. However, even if the debit and credit balance matches at the end of the trial balance report, it does not mean that there are no errors or omission in the listed account in the trial balance. The trial balance of Bobs bikes shows incorrect information and misrepresentation of the value of the company. Many accounts in the trial balance show incorrect value in the opening and closing financial income year (Keown, Martin and Petty, 2008). Trial balance is a report that is collected f rom the accounting records. The process of correcting any errors or omission in the trial balance as well as making adjustments in the trial balance is referred to as unadjusted trial balance. Five accounts selected and rationales The materiality has been found in the trial balance. The accounts that have been misrepresented are account receivable, sales, inventory, depreciation and wages account in the trial balance. The increase or decrease in the value affects the total value of the company. The account receivable has been overstated which means that the company has not received debt amount from the debtors (Moles, 2011). The inventory account has been overstated which means that the inventory has increased. The depreciation value has also been overstated showing high value. The wages has been understated showing that less wage has been paid by the company. The sales has been overstated which shows that the sales of the company has increased over the period. Part B: Sample selection Explanation/demonstration of sampling technique The primary aim and objective of the auditing is considered to secure the compliance with the clients works standards and thus helps to evaluate the overall financial performance of the company for the given fiscal year which eventually lead to the maximization of the profit (Saxena et al., 2010). Random Sampling Technique The random sampling technique in auditing is used by the auditor to select data without replacement. Once the account has been selected to test it is removed from population and it would not be subjected to the re selection (Shapiro, 2006). The random sampling technique can be used by the auditor in two ways: random number tables or computer programs. Systematic sampling technique Systematic Sampling technique enables the auditor to select sample data in such a way that there are uniform intervals between the sample items. In this sampling technique every Nth account is selected with random start (Spiceland, Sepe and Nelson, 2011). Haphazard sampling technique Haphazard sampling technique is the non statistical technique that is used by the auditor to stimulate the sampling while testing the status of errors of the accounting population. The findings shows that the properties of the haphazard samples substantially differ from those of the random sampling (Stittle and Wearing, 2008). The haphazard sampling technique can be used for substantive testing. It is an procedure to examine the financial report of the company and evaluating the errors in the document. Benefits of selected sampling technique Befnefits of Hapazrd approach The auditor should adopt random sampling technique while selecting the items. The benefits of haphazard sampling technique are that it needs minimum knowledge for the study and selection of the item. It is free from errors and suitable for the data analysis that includes use of the inferential statistics (Tripathi, 2008). The method is easy to use and simple as well as easy to assess the errors in the sample. It helps the auditor to select the data and analyze it appropriately to get the results. It will help the auditor to get better result from the sampling. It also allows the auditor to prevent the bias work and making the work easy. The random sampling technique provides a simple way to the auditor to select the data and make observations as well as depends on the limitation of the research and type of data (Wolf, 2008). Therefore, it allows the auditor to select items in a random in order to get appropriate results. The sales account has been determine and evaluated with the hel p of Haphazard approach. Drawbacks of random sampling technique The simple random samplings has some limitation as because it is expensive to use, time consuming and also difficult to organize. It requires complete list of data and depends on the study. The auditor may get confuse while using the random sampling. Therefore, it shows biased results that is not appropriate (Keown, Martin and Petty, 2008). Drawbacks of systematic sampling technique The systematic sampling technique assumes that the population size is available reasonably approximated. The auditors have to research to study the size of the data in the given area. The population needs to show the natural degree of the randomness along with the chosen metric (Holton, 2012). There is high risk of manipulation of data with the systematic sampling as because the auditor might be able to construct the system in order to increase the likelihood to achieve the targeted outcome. Part C: Considerations in substantive testing and collecting audit evidence300 In substantive audit approach auditor focus to verify each and every bit of information of the transaction on his own without depending on the information provided by the management. To provide non manipulative financial information to the investor and other key users of the financial statement is considered to be the primary reason for adopting a predominantly substantive approach in part b (Moles, 2011). Occurrence as it is signifies the first selecting an item for testing from the financial journal or ledgers and then analyzing the underlying primary source document. Tracing and vouching both are considered to be important as both are referred as the occurrence and completeness. Tracing signifies the selection of accounting transaction and then it leads to the journal or ledger. The direction of testing in this scenario is from the primary source document to the journal or ledgers and thus tests whether the overall transaction which occurred is recorded in the accounting records (Saxena et al., 2010). On the other hand vouching starts with the selection of the item for the testing purpose from the accounting journal or ledgers which further carry with analyzing the underlying source document. Therefore it is considered that vouching is providing more evidence that the item consist in the accounting journal or ledges have occurred. Business risk approach which is also known as the risk based approach Business risk approach is considered to be one the most prevalent approach based nowadays by the audit firm to complete the audit assignments. For example International auditing standards focus on understanding the entity and its marketing and financial environment including internal control system to understand the risk of material misstatement at the financial statement and assertion levels (Shapiro, 2006). No, as it will reflect negative value in financial ratios. Yes, as substantive report is zero reliance on the internal control. External auditor information is required before projecting outcome to the entire account balance. To decrease the detection risk which eventually helps to accomplish the expected level of audit risk which provide the assurance of the validity and propriety of the transaction to identify the monetary misstatement (Spiceland, Sepe and Nelson, 2011). Monetary misstatement is considered to be the primary reason to carry out part year trail balance. References Berk, J. and DeMarzo, P. (2007).Corporate finance. Boston: Pearson Addison Wesley. Elliott, B. and Elliott, J. (2008).Financial accounting and reporting. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Hillier, D. (2010).Corporate finance. London: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Holton, R. (2012).Global finance. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Keown, A., Martin, J. and Petty, J. (2008).Foundations of finance. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. Moles, P. (2011).Corporate finance. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Saxena, R., Srinivas, K., Rai, U. and Rai, S. (2010).Auditing. Mumbai [India]: Himalaya Pub. House. Shapiro, A. (2006).Multinational financial management. New York: J. Wiley Sons. Spiceland, J., Sepe, J. and Nelson, M. (2011).Intermediate accounting. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Stittle, J. and Wearing, B. (2008).Financial accounting. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. Tripathi, M. (2008).Auditing and finance management. New Delhi: Navyug Publishers and Distributors. Wolf, M. (2008).Fixing global finance. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Prioritizing It Project Management Portfolio free essay sample

The realities of shrinking IT budgets and increasing dependence on IT in organizations in recent years has resulted in a situation in which there is an intense competition for resources needed to execute and complete IT projects. According to Ross (2007), the shrinking IT budget in the face of increasing demand has brought new pressures to the IT function. To gain approval and funding for projects, IT departments must demonstrate that such new project will either result in cost saving, increased sales, or result in greater enterprise-wide efficiency (Ross, 2007). The intense competition for resources makes it imperative that IT managers need to prioritize their projects in order to gain approval and funding. To help them effectively prioritize, many IT managers have embraced IT project portfolio management strategies to enable them insightfully decide what project should get funding and what projects should be postponed, shelved, or cancelled. What is Project Portfolio Management? Essentially, Project Portfolio management enables organizations to align their IT and application development projects, resources, and initiatives to corporate business objectives by developing and monitoring measures that treat IT assets as financial assets and to run as a project-oriented business (Reddy, 2004). We will write a custom essay sample on Prioritizing It Project Management Portfolio or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This statement is supported by Ross (2007), in his submission that many CIOs and IT project managers are applying the principles of investment portfolio management to managing IT project portfolios. This implies that Project Portfolio Management enables IT managers to manage IT project portfolios as one would manage a portfolio of diverse financial investments. Goal of Project Portfolio Management : The goal of PPM is to identify and prioritize the projects within an organization, to ensure that appropriate resources can be applied in a timely manner. This is done through the establishment of systems that provide status report on going and pending projects to enable optimal allocation of resources to complete projects that support the organizations strategic plan. PPM enables integrated management of pipeline, scope, time, resource, skills, cost, procurement, communication, reporting and forecasting, and risk management functions (Reddy, 2004). * This paper will now attempt to prioritize IT projects in the project portfolio of the New York based company XYZ Incorporated. Company XYZ Inc. is a New York-based garment production company that has been in business for over 30 years. The sad events of September 11, 2001 brought hardships and and a drop in business volumes for organizations in the New York downtowm and Midtown areas. This combined with the resulting depression and an unpredictable global economy to undermine business growth in the USA in general and New York City in particular. To improve its market share and profitability, the company would like to invest in an Enterprise Resource planning system, E-mail exchanger system, Database system, and upgrade its Network infrastructure. * Because of the bad economy, the organization cannot afford to fund and support all four projects at the same time. The C. E. O has therefore asked the CIO to prioritize the projects and let him know which one should be implemented first and the order in which the remaining projects will be implemented while maintaining alignment with the organization’s overall strategy. The criteria for this prioritization will consider the ability for the projects to drive and create more revenue for the corporation, Cut operating costs, governmental mandates, and whether the organization’s competitors have implemented these technologies. A scoring system will also be developed weighting each criterion. In some IT projects, all may apply. Provide your analysis by observing how you evaluate each project in comparison to how the target organization evaluates each project. * To properly rank and prioritize the projects in its portfolio, the IT department has to utilized a point ranking system. Points were assigned to each project on a scale of 1 -10. The higher a project scores on this point system the better the chances of its being a priority for execution.

Compare Falstaff and Henry IV as father figures Essays

Compare Falstaff and Henry IV as father figures Essays Compare Falstaff and Henry IV as father figures Paper Compare Falstaff and Henry IV as father figures Paper Hal has two father figures, Falstaff and Henry IV. They are both different from each other, and what they teach Hal. Falstaff seems to mislead Hal, and his real father discards him. Ultimately, there is only room for one of them and Hal makes a choice, but not forgetting what he has learnt. Falstaff as a father figure, and as a regular man, seems to have many visible faults. Although he is a warm character, Hal says he is fat, ye fat kidneyed rascal, a thief, Where shall we take a purse tomorrow, Jack? and he is lazy. All of the things mentioned about Falstaff in his opening speech make out as this criminal who lazes about all day and sins. This first impression is lasting and makes Falstaff seem a bad role model, and not a suitable father. He educates Hal, but not what might be seen as right, or in the right way. However he is funny and is made to appeal to the audience, as a lovable rogue. Honour is a mere scutcheon Here Falstaff is exposing the emptiness of honour, and Hal sees it that way too. He thinks of honour as a means of getting what he wants, and if he were considered honourable, he would be more respected. A scutcheon is like a wooden thing that is painted over to make it look better quality. He not only teaches him but also tries to strongly influence him. Do not thou when thou art king hang a thief Falstaff tries to tell Hal not to hang thieves when he is king but Hal turns it around and says that Falstaff will hang the thieves, and also subtlety says he will cast him off. Shakespeares use of language here, especially the puns, were suited to the audience of the time, but are less clear to the audience now as pronunciations change, and some words arent in use any more. When Poins and Hal rob Falstaff of his own loot, he makes up a story saying four men attacked him. However this story escalates more until it becomes a hundred people attacking Falstaff. These four all came affront, and took all their seven points in my target Falstaff is lying to Hal, because Hal knows what really happened, as he was the one to have robbed Falstaff. Someone that lies and cheats cant be very good at fathering can he? Falstaff`s faults make him a bad father figure, but should be thought of as a helpful teacher. He shows Hal how to really live and how the common people live, something he will have to understand to become a better king. When Falstaff asks the time, Now Hal, what time of day is it, lad? Hal replies by referring to parts of the clock as Falstaffs pleasures (Unless hours were cups of sack, and minutes capons), and says that only if that were true would Falstaff want to know the time. This shows how Hal knows Falstaff and suggests Hal is in control. Later in the play when Hal begins his reformation talked about in his soliloquy, Redeeming time when men least think I will, he also begins to shrug off Falstaff as shown on the battlefield. Hals soliloquy is the best insight to him, as Shakespeare uses these play devices so the audience can see the real character. What, is it a time to jest and dally now? Hal is saying this, because he asks for Falstaffs sword and Falstaff can only produce a bottle of wine, which Hal throws back at him. This is the beginning of Hal redemption, showing that he no longer wants to play around. He also begins to question Falstaffs influence as a father. The king is no better as a father. While he is no thief or a bad example (except for his supposed disposing of King Richard) he does not father Hal properly. He is very good at manipulation and this trait show up in Hal. He even openly says that he wishes Hal wasnt his son! ( Then I would have his Harry, and his mine. ). He is very dismissive of Hal and doesnt say anything praising about him. This is probably why Hal turned to Falstaff and got roped into his way of living. Whilst I by looking on the praise of him See riot and dishonour stain the brow Of my young Harry The king speaks in verse, as this is Shakespeares way of showing his formality. The king says this in front of many different courtiers and important people. Hal resents this and bad feeling does come between father and son. Instead of speaking to Hal, the king casts him aside and that is why Hal turns to Falstaff. They dont ever seem to communicate. That in his secret doom out of my blood Hell breed revengement and a scourge for me. The King is saying here that God is making him pay for some misdeed by making Hal act the way he does. This is in act three scene two, where the king is telling Hal off and where Hal says he will redeem his self. For thou hast lost thy princely privelege With vile participation. Shortly after the king says this, he comes to tears but Hal recovers the whole situation by telling his father he will make it up to him. I will redeem all this on Percys head This doesnt make up for the kings faults, but he does start to show some appreciation. A hundred thousand rebels die in this. Thou shalt have charge and sovereign trust herein At the end of the play, Hal saves his fathers life, kills Hotspur and this is when the king opens up. They both learn from the events around them, Hal to be a good son, and the king to be a real father. Thou hast redeemed thy lost opinion, And showed thou makst some tender of my life. Shakespeare completely distorts and manipulates history for his own benefit, particularly with Hotspur and Hal, concerning their rivalry. In real life, Hotspur was as old as King Henry, but Shakespeare changed it so that the two could be juxtaposed, and would come between the King and his appreciation of his son. Hal makes himself look better and the king becomes a better father figure. In the end, the King is the better father out of him and Falstaff, but what Hal is taught by Falstaff is still important. Hal benefits from having the two father figures because he gains two sets of teaching. These combined will make him a great ruler. Overall the King is the better father figure but he just needs to adjust and be more fatherly to Hal, for he is very cold. While Falstaff shares laughter with Hal, but it is usually at him and he is only so much use as a teacher. Falstaffs saving grace is his warmth. This leads to Hal shrugging him off. A teacher is no more use when you have learnt all he has to offer, but your father will always be there.

Why inventory management is important to a production company Term Paper

Why inventory management is important to a production company - Term Paper Example to enhance overall internal organizational efficiency, and dictates the degree to which raw materials are ordered as part of the supply chain strategy. Managing inventories involves maintaining an understanding of the exact quantity of finished product which is currently sitting idle in company inventories. Some companies produce larger volumes of finished product based on forecasts or customer demand, allowing their finished goods inventories to remain well-stocked in order to maintain a prepared business stance. Others prefer a more lean production schedule, avoiding issues of high taxation due to large inventory volumes and as a means to reduce the costs of securing raw supply chain products. Whatever methodology of production deemed necessary to meet customer demand, it is highly crucial to manage inventory volumes from a manufacturing forecast perspective. If the organization maintains a wide variety of external customers, each with a differing supply schedule, coordinating manufacturing activities to satisfy this demand becomes increasingly difficult. Thus, there are generally capacity issues on the production floor, stemming from the tangible ability to produce high volumes of product in a fast turn-around production floor. For instance, consider a company which produces zippers for a wide variety of clothing companies. This company’s largest customer orders thousands of zippers each month, thus the production facility will produce a high volume of product in several batch runs, eventually storing them in finished goods inventory to await final delivery to the customer. However, this customer suddenly reduces its forecasted totals and radically reduces its zip per orders for the next three months consecutively. It is at this point that the company must have a clear understanding of what currently exists in its inventories to avoid the labor costs associated with over-production. When planning production schedules, the responsible individuals can view a

Shakespeare's tragic vision Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Shakespeare's tragic vision - Essay Example Ben Jon son, a contemporary Play Wright said about Shakespeare that, "He was not of an age but for all times" who with his dramatic genius has established and underlying reputation for himself which he lived. Shakespeare's age was a period of ignorance and superstition. Despite the advancement of science and learning, the majority of the people still believed in witchcraft and charms omens of all sorts' .The frequent appearance of the supernatural can be seen like ghost in Julius Caesar and Hamlet, witches in Macbeth. Medical science was still rudimentary, and all sorts of fantastic lures were prescribed. Hamlet is considered as a tragedy has all the typical features of a Shakespearean tragedy. A Shakespearean tragedy is essentially the tale of one man- the hero .Hamlet is the prince of Denmark, frank, noble hearted man. That is why he is popular with the people, and Ophelia and Fortinbras praise him so highly. The suffering of the tragic hero is also exceptional; he suffers so terribly the hearts of the readers filled with pity and sympathy. Hamlet has all the chief Characteristics of a typical Elizabethans Revenge ply. The Revenge motif is strong in it. Hamlet's father is murdered in a most foul manner. It is an unnatural crime, for the criminal is the real brother of the murdered King. His queen has been unfaithful to her husband during his life time and soon after his death she marries the murderer. Thus there is murder, adultery, and incestuous marriage. In the manner of revenge play, it is the ghost of Hamlet's father who reveals to the young prince the horrible truth about his father's death, and lays upon him the duty of revenge. The supernatural motif has been fully exploited, eg. The ghost speaks only to the prince. In Hamlet there is much of fighting, bloodshed and violence. First Hamlet kills Polonius hidden behind the curtain. Not only had that he dug his body down exclaiming: This man will set me packing; I will lug the guts into the neighboring room . The revenge motif has been fully exploited, and thrills and sensations, for which the "grounding" longed, have been provided in ample measure. It is not merely an object of horror, but also the representation of the hidden, mysterious forces that lurk around us. It is an instrument of justice to punish the evil doer. Hamlet is one of the greatest tragedies of the world. As Goggling is points out, Hamlet, "is not to be regarded as a tragedy of revenge, but as a universal figure; he is every man. In his suffering, melancholy, hesitations in his inaction at a crucial moment in his life he typifies some one or the other phase of human nature". Hamlet is a tortured soul and it is through his soliloquies that the dreamiest has laid bare his soul before us. Without the soliloquies the drama would be more husks without a Kernel. One can say that Hamlet is Soul's tragedy and raise above a crude Melodrama or Revenge play. According to Samuel Johnson on Hamlet, "The play of Hamlet is opened, without impropriety, by two sentinels; Iago bellows at Brabantio's window, without injury to the scheme of the play, though in terms which a modern audience would not easily endure; the character of Polonius is seasonable and useful; and the grave-diggers themselves may be

Examining The Historical Development Of Criminology Criminology Essay

Examining The Historical Development Of Criminology Criminology Essay Although it there is some debate on the historical development of criminology, there is agreement that by the beginning of the 1960s there was a recognisable academic discipline in the form of modern criminology in Britain (Tierney, 2006). Nic Groombrigde (2001: 202) defined pathology as an unhealthy deviation from the norm which is located in the individual at the level of genes, hormones or psyche. Ultimately this implies criminality is the result of abnormality; i.e. that which is not normal. Criminologists have come up with various theories as to why people commit crime and recommended responses, and this essay will explore whether criminality is pathological with reference to variants of classical, positivist and social constructionist theories. Classical criminology believes the offender is free-willed, rational and normal, whereas positivist approaches suggests the offender is determined, and pathological. Social constructionist theories suggest the offender is a product of cu ltural and political influences. The main difference between the three theories is whether or not individuals are rational decision makers or not, i.e. if they are pathological or not. In the eighteenth century classical criminology emerged as a response to the cruel forms of punishment that dominated. It was centrally concerned with creating a reformed, efficient system of justice that would better regulate social order in industrial society (Tierney, 2006: 50). Two main writers who helped to achieve this were Cesare de Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. Beccaria wanted punishment to be certain, in order to deter people from committing criminal acts. He also believed that if one was punished quickly they would associate crime with punishment, and that the punishment should be severe enough to deter future criminal behaviour (Newburn, 2007: 116). Benthams work involved the pleasure-pain principle, so any pleasure to be gained from crime should be outweighed by the pain inflicted in punishment. Classical theory is based on the assumption of free will (i.e. not pathology), with criminal activity being the result of rational choice of the individual; who is acting on a cost -benefit analysis. The aim of punishment was to make it proportionate to crime in order to deter people from committing criminal acts. At this stage in criminology, the emphasis was on the criminal act rather than the individual committing it, so there was no differentiation between the criminal and the non-criminal. Classical theory has impacted modern criminology massively, with the idea of punishment being proportionate to the criminal act still being used by modern criminal justice systems. It also helped capital punishment be abolished, and heightened the awareness for the need for prisons. However, a major criticism of classicism is the fact that it is normative rather than empirical; based on values rather than evidence. It also assumes criminal activity is the result of rational thought, therefore it suggests children should be treated in the same way as adults, and does not make exceptions for those who are mentally ill or those with learning difficulties (Tierney, 2006). In contrast to classical criminology, the positivist approach focuses on features within the individual that cause criminal activity; i.e. criminality is pathological (Newburn, 2007: 114). It emerged in the late nineteenth century and claimed to promote the scientific study of society, replacing opinion with empirical evidence and science (Treadwell, 2006: 34). Treadwell (2006) also believes positivism in criminology wanted to predict and explain future patterns of social behaviour using secondary data (statistical). It sees crime as pre-determined (and therefore uncontrollable) rather than expressions of free will. Positivism spans biological, psychological and sociological attempts to explain the causes of crime. One key writer in biological positivism is Cesare Lombroso who suggested a criminal was not made by society but rather born that way (i.e. criminality is pathological). Lombroso even went as far as to say that deviation in head size could be an indicator of criminality a n idea now discredited (Newburn, 2007). If biological theories are considered along with psychological and sociological theories, then they can help explain criminality. However, on its own, it lacks scientific evidence, and can lead to eugenics; proposing the removal of those who are inferior (e.g. Nazi Germany targeting the disabled, homosexuals (Treadwell, 2006). In psychological positivism, Hans Eysenck was a key thinker, who believed it was possible to chart human personality on three scales: extroversion, neuroticism and psychoticsm. Exaggeration of traits would lead to anti-social behaviour (Treadwell, 2006). Psychological positivism considers psychology as an explanation for criminality which includes an individuals reasoning, personality, memory, intelligence etc. Biological and psychological positivism are useful for the government because they draw attention away from social conditions (Newburn, 2007). Sociological positivism explains criminality with reference to social circumstances and factors external to the individual, so moves away from pathology. One example of sociological theory is strain by Robert Merton (1938). He looked at why crime was more prevalent in lower class areas, and found inequality between goals in society (e.g. wealth) and the means to achieve them (e.g. education needed for wealth was not available to everyone). Merton suggested this motivation to achieve goals led to frustration and a motive for criminal activity. Treatment in positivism should be immediate and should fit the needs of the offender. Whereas classical theory looks at the offense, and positivism focuses on the offender, social constructionist theory looks at the social reaction to deviance. This theory does not suggest pathology is the reason for criminal acts, rather that individuals are responding to being labelled due to political and cultural influences (similar to sociological positivism). The theory suggests criminals are created by those with the power to label behaviour as offensive. Emile Durkheim (1895) sums this up by saying that what confers a criminal character is not the intrinsic quality of a given act but that definition which the collective conscience lends them. The object of study is to question why some acts are labelled criminal, while others are not. There is also the question of why some people are more prone to being labelled than others, and the consequences of labelling. Thomas (1928: 572) stated that if we define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. Labelling theory e merged in the late 1930s due to the work of Frank Tannenbaum on juvenile delinquents; where he concluded that delinquents are good children committing bad acts, who are then labelled as bad and continue in that manner (Newburn, 2007). Another aspect of labelling theory is Mertons self fulfilling prophecy which he described as; in the beginning, a false definition of the situation evoking a new behaviour which makes the originally false conception come true (1968: 477). Edwin Lemert distinguished between two types of deviance; primary and secondary. He stated that primary deviance occurs in a variety of social cultural and psychological contexts, and only has minimal implications for the psychic structure of an individual whereas secondary deviance is behaviour created as a defence to problems created by societal reaction to primary deviance (Lemert, 1967: 17). Associated to this idea is that of deviancy amplification which is the idea that ideas that deviancy can be distorted in tr ansmission, and can lead to exaggeration of societal reaction (Newburn, 2007). This reaction has been termed moral panic, and is summed up by Stan Cohen in Folk Devils and Moral Panics. In this case, society reacted to the dress of the mods and rockers, which in turn segregated them from society; resulting in deviance. This view is helpful in determining the response to criminal activity. Punishment should involve diversion away from negative labelling to positive labelling. Reintegrative shaming should be applied, which John Braithwaite defined as reintegrating the offender back into the community through words or gestures of forgiveness (1989: 101). A modern example of politics in labelling theory is the recent sacking of David Nutt on the thirtieth of October 2009. He was fired because of a paper he released stating alcohol abuse is more harmful than cannabis taking. Cannabis is an example of deviant behaviour being labelled, and as classification of the drug is always changing, so are the labels of deviant behaviour. Labelling theory has had implications in the criminal justice system. Emphasis has been put on providing young juveniles with social workers, who aim to limit the process of entanglement in the criminal justice system (Newburn, 2007: 221). One limitation of the theory is the fact it is not easily tested empirically. There is also the view that labelling can be counter productive with the fear of being labelled being a deterrent to committing criminal acts. This is evidenced by the fact that minor punishments are effective for first time offenders (Jones, 2003: 195) An example of where you could use classical, positivist and social constructionist theories to analyse criminal behaviour is the increase in youth knife crime. In 2008 BBC News reported thirty youths were stabbed in London alone. A classical approach would blame the lack of deterrents for the increase in carrying weapons; people are unafraid and the majority get away with it. They would suggest punishing proportionate to the crime. Psychologival positivists would suggest the macho status is appealing; the mob mentality. Biological positivists would suggest that the impulse to carry a knife is predetermined in biology, and so educating youths in school would be vital. Sociological positivism would blame the environment, with the poorest being at most risk. The labelling theory would suggest deviancy amplification is at play; with a moral panic created about youths. As they are consequently segregated, they carry knifes to fit in with other youths because they are the only group they a ssociated with. The three theories can be used together to help build a bigger picture into why people commit crime. Although the positivists would argue that criminality is pathological, there is also evidence from classicism and social constructionist theories that suggest criminality is the result of different factors, e.g. labelling. It is important to look at individual differences when assessing criminality, and to make the best judgements, a modern criminologist would be advised to consider all three of the approaches because although they all have their limitations, they also have great advantages for the criminal justice system. According to Groombridge (2001), administrative criminology has sought to side-step the issue of pathology within the individual or society but replaces it with the fear or risk of others pathology, which is to be managed. This could explain the dependence on security measures (e.g. CCTV) in todays society; to watch others behaviour and devise suitable punishments according to the crime.

Competitive advantage through employees Essay

Organizations that seek to gain competitive advantage through employees must be able to manage their performance. A 360-degree feedback process is a popular means of managing and improving organizational performance. This method means a person receives feedback from a full circle of other people who work around him or her, which includes peers, subordinates, supervisor and even themselves (Atwater & Brett, 2006). The 360-degree approach recognizes that little change can be expected without feedback, and that different constituencies are a source of rich and useful information to help managers guide their behavior. In a traditional performance evaluation, such as supervisor-subordinate, the supervisor tends to look at a person’s performance from an evaluative viewpoint. In 360-degree reviews, the purpose is more from a feedback viewpoint, which can help the organization to increase or gain competitive advantages by providing feedback to leaders and managers. For instance, a subordinate’s perspective likely will be distinctly different from that of the supervisor. Furthermore, Research has shown that 360-degree feedback can enhance communications and performance (Bernardin & Beatty, 1987). Because it gives a sense to employees that their opinions had been actively sought and heard, which ultimately led to a more open and communicative environment (Carson, 2006). However, misuse of the 360-degree feedback, can lead to hurt feelings, increased anxiety, and even loss of key personnel (Carlson, 2006). What’s more, preparation and implementation of 360-degree feedback is costly as investing time and money. And the process may generate tension between the manager and those who provide ratings (Hautaluoma, et al, 1992). Further, it may set up potential conflict by highlighting the need to be â€Å"different things to different people†. As a result, negative information becomes more powerful and difficult to deny, especially when raters agree; and easy to distort or perceive selectively, especially when raters disagree. In conclusion, regarding to the 360-degree feedback, how it can be used to add great value to organizational effectiveness and development, depends very much on the organizational culture how you implement it and how you can use the results. References: Carson, M 2006, ‘Saying it like isn’t: The pros and cons of 360-degree feedback’, Business horizons, vol. 49, pp. 395-402 Kramar, R, Bartram, T, Cieri, De Cieri, H, Noe, RA, Hollenbeck, JR, Gerhart, B, & Wright, PM, 2014, Human Resource Management in Australia,5th Edition, Mc-Graw Hill, North Ryde, NSW. Lepsinger, R. & Lucia, A.D. 1997, 360 degree feedback and performance appraisal, Minneapolis. London, M & Beatty, Richard, W 1993, ‘360-Degree Feedback as a Competitive Advantage’, Human Resource Management, vol. 32, issue 2/3, pp. 353-372, 20p, 6 Diagrams

Appiled Arts Essay

Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them-clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal-it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the â€Å"applied arts. † Approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters and supports. There is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, and supports must be functional. The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. These laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, or climate. If a pot has no bottom or has large openings in its sides, it could hardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. Buildings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. However, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a Shang Dynasty vase as being different from an Inca vase. What varies is not the basic form but the incidental details that do not obstruct the object’s primary function. ?Sensitivity to physical laws is thus an important consideration for the maker of applied-art objects. It is often taken for granted that this is also true for the maker of fine-art objects. This assumption misses a significant difference between the two disciplines. Fine-art objects are not constrained by the laws of physics in the same way that applied-art objects are. Because their primary purpose is not functional, they are only limited in terms of the materials used to make them. Sculptures must, for example, be stable, which requires an understanding of the properties of mass, weight distribution, and stress. Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics, not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze). Even though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treat materials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation to their materials in the fine arts and the applied arts remains relatively constant. It would therefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners of the fine arts work to overcome the limitations of their materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials.

The Issue Of Cyber Crime - 1118 Words

Introduction Anonymity has always been a desirable result when criminals commit a crime. Whether a person is covering their face with a ski mask as they physically rob a bank or someone infiltrates a hospital’s network to steal personal information for ransom, every criminal finds comfort in the warped sense that their identity will most likely be unknown, which will allow them to evade law enforcement. Due to technological advancements, criminals are more likely to remain anonymous after committing a criminal act when they engage in cyber crime. As a result, organized crime has been able to evolve due to the rapid emergence of technology, presenting the greatest threat to the transnational community known to date. ‘Hacktivism,’ which is the act of breaking into computer systems for politically and/or socially motivated purposes, is challenging the fine line between basic rights and criminality. The majority of criminals on the Internet have portrayed themselves as ‘hacktivists,’ however, the distinction between criminals and ‘hacktivists’ questions the extent of the rule of law in cyberspace. Cyberspace is defined as â€Å"the electronic medium of computer networks, in which online communication takes place.† In view of the nature of cyberspace, ‘hacktivism’ naturally transcends borders, thus, making this an emerging transnational issue that needs to be addressed as soon as possible. The best way to visualize cyberspace is understanding Thomas Hobbes’ theory on the naturalShow MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Cyber Crimes Essay1673 Words   |  7 PagesJurisdiction is one of the main issues on account of cyber crimes because of the extremely inclusive nature of the cyber crimes. With the constantly developing arm of the internet the territorial concept appears to vanish. New Methods for resolution of dispute should offer route to the traditional techniques. 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